Half Human, Half Beast Mythological Figures of Ancient Times

Creatures who are half-man, half-beast are found in the legends of nearly every culture on our planet. A great many of those in western culture made their first appearance in stories and plays from ancient Greece, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. They probably are older still: myths about sphinxes and centaurs and minotaurs told at the dinner table or in the amphitheaters were undoubtedly passed down over generations.   The strength of this archetype can be seen in the persistence of modern tales of werewolves, vampires, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and a host of other monster/horror characters. Irish author Bram Stoker (1847–1912) wrote Dracula in 1897, and more than a century later the image of the vampire has installed itself as part of the popular mythology.   Oddly enough, though, the closest we have for a general word containing the meaning of half-human, half-beast hybrid is therianthrope, which generally refers to a shapeshifter, someone who is entirely human for part of the time and entirely animal for the other part. Other words that are used in English and other languages are specific to the blends and often refer to the legendary creatures of the myths. Here are some of the mythical half-human, half-animal creatures from stories told in past ages.   Sandro Botticelli (Italian, 1444/45-1510). Pallas and the Centaur, ca. early 1480s. Tempera on canvas. 207 x 148 cm (81 1/2 x 58 1/4 in.). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence / Photo  © Paolo Tosi - Artothek The Centaur One of the most famous hybrid creatures is the centaur, the horse-man of Greek legend.  An interesting theory about the origin of the centaur is that they were created when people of the Minoan culture, who were unfamiliar with horses, first met tribes of horse-riders and were so impressed with the skill that they created stories of horse-humans.   Whatever the origin, the legend of the centaur endured into Roman times, during which time there was a great scientific debate over whether the creatures indeed existed—much the way the existence of the yeti is argued today.  And the centaur has been present in story-telling ever since, even appearing in the Harry Potter books and films.   Echidna Echidna is a half-woman, half-snake from Greek mythology, where she was known as the mate of the fearsome snake-man Typhon, and mother of many of the most horrible monsters of all time. The first reference of Echidna is in the Greek mythology of Hesiod called Theogony, written probably around the turn of the 7th–8th century BCE. Some scholars believe that stories of dragons in medieval Europe are in part based on Echidna.   Harpy In Greek and Roman stories, the harpy was described as a bird with the head of a woman. The earliest existing reference comes from Hesiod, and the poet Ovid described them as human vultures.  In legend, they are known as the source of destructive winds.  Even today, a woman may be known behind her back as a harpy if others find her annoying, and an alternative verb for nag is harp.   Circa 500 BCE, An archaic metope from one of the Temples of Selinus. Perseus, the son of Zeus and Danae from Greek mythology is beheading the Gorgon Medusa. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images) The Gorgons Another therianthrope from Greek mythology is the Gorgons, three sisters (Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa) who were entirely human in every way—except that their hair was made up of writhing, hissing snakes. So fearsome were these creatures that anyone gazing on them directly was turned to stone.  Similar characters appear in the earliest centuries of Greek story-telling, in which gorgon-like creatures also had scales and claws, not just reptilian hair.   Some people suggest that the irrational horror of snakes that some people exhibit might be related to early horror stories like that of the Gorgons. Mandrake The Mandrake is a rare instance in which a hybrid creature is a blend of a plant and human. The mandrake plant  is an actual group of plants (genus  Mandragora) found in the Mediterranean region, which has the peculiar property of having roots that look like a human face. This, combined with the fact that the plant has hallucinogenic properties, lead to the mandrakes entry into human folklore. In legend, when the plant is dug up, its screams can kill anyone who hears it.   Harry Potter fans will undoubtedly remember that mandrakes appear in those books and movies. The story clearly has staying power.   Little Mermaid Statue in Copenhagen. Linda Garrison Mermaid The first legend of the Mermaid, a creature with the head and upper body of a human woman and the lower body and tail of a fish comes from a legend from ancient Assyria, in which the goddess Atargatis  transformed herself into a mermaid out of shame for accidentally killing her human lover.  Since then, mermaids have appeared in stories throughout all ages, and they are not always recognized as fictional. Christopher Columbus swore that he saw real-life mermaids on his voyage to the new world, but then, hed been at sea for quite a while. Theres an Irish and Scottish version of a mermaid, half-seal, half-woman, known as a selkie. The Danish storyteller Hans Christian Anderson used the mermaid legend to tell of a hopeless romance between a mermaid and a human man. His 1837 tale has also inspired several movies, including director Ron Howards 1984 Splash, and Disneys blockbuster 1989, The Little Mermaid.   Minotaur In Greek stories, and later Roman, the Minotaur is a creature that is part bull, part man. Its name derives from the bull-god, Minos, a major deity of the Minoan civilization of Crete, as well as a king who demanded sacrifices of Athenian youths to feed it. The Minotaurs most famous appearance is in the Greek story of Theseus who fought the Minotaur in the heart of the labyrinth to rescue Ariadne. The minotaur as a creature of legend has been durable, appearing in Dantes Inferno, and in modern fantasy fiction. Hell Boy,  first appearing in 1993 comics, is a modern version of the Minotaur. One might argue that the Beast character from the tale of Beauty and the Beast is another version of the same myth.   A satyr chats with a Maenead, one of Dionysuss other followers. Tarporley Painter/Wikimedia Commons Public Domain Satyr Another fantasy creature from Greek stories is the satyr, a creature who is part goat, part man. Unlike many hybrid creatures of legend, the satyr (or the late Roman manifestation, the faun), is not dangerous—except perhaps to human women, as a creature hedonistically and raucously devoted to pleasure.   Even today, to call someone a satyr is to imply they are impishly obsessed with physical pleasure.   Siren In ancient Greek stories, the siren was a creature with the head and upper body of a human woman and the legs and tail of a bird. She was an especially dangerous creature for sailors, singing from rocky shores which hid dangerous reefs and luring the sailors onto them. When Odysseus returned from Troy in Homers famous epic, The Odyssey, he tied himself to the mast of his ship in order to resist their lures. The legend has persisted for quite a while. Several centuries later, the Roman Historian Pliny the Elder was making the case for regarding Sirens as imaginary, fictional beings rather than actual creatures. They made a reappearance in the writings of 17th century Jesuit priests, who believed them to be real, and even today, a woman thought to be dangerously seductive is sometimes referred to as a siren, and an entrancing idea as a siren song. The Sphinx - Site of the First Archaeological Excavation. Yen Chung / Moment / Getty Images Sphinx The sphinx is a creature with the head of a human and the body and haunches of a lion and sometimes the wings of an eagle and tail of a snake.  It is most commonly associated with ancient Egypt, due to the famous Sphinx monument  that can be visited today at Giza. But the sphinx was also a character in Greek story-telling. Wherever it appears, the Sphinx is a dangerous creature that challenges humans to answer questions, then devours them when they fail to answer correctly.   The Sphinx figures prominently in the tragedy of Oedipus, who answered the riddle of the Sphinx correctly and suffered mightily because of it. In Greek stories, the Sphinx has the head of a woman; in Egyptian stories, the Sphinx is a man.   A similar creature with the head of a man and body of a lion is also present in the mythology of Southeast Asia.   What Does it Mean? Psychologists and scholars of comparative mythology have long debated why human culture is so fascinated by hybrid creatures that combine attributes of both humans and animals. Scholars of folklore and mythology such as Joseph Campbell maintain that these are psychological archetypes, ways of expressing our innate love-hate relationship with the animal side of ourselves from which we evolved. Others would view them less seriously, as merely entertaining myths and stories offering scary fun that requires no analysis.   Sources and Further Reading Hale, Vincent, ed. Mesopotamian Gods Goddesses. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, 2014. Print.Hard, Robin. The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. London: Routledge, 2003. Print.Hornblower, Simon, Antony Spawforth, and Esther Eidinow, eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print.Leeming, David. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.Lurker, Manfred. A Dictionary of Gods, Goddesses, Devils and Demons. London: Routledge, 1987. Print.

Immigrants From The United States - 2268 Words

Immigrants from all of Latin America come to this country in look of a better life. Enrique came from the Central American country of Honduras. He came to the United States in search of prosperity and money to maintain his family back home. He went through the treacherous journey that is traveling through the jungle and desert in order to achieve his goal. The goal of making it alive to the country of opportunity, America. He found a job at a farm down in California. He was paid well, and made enough to maintain himself and family back in Honduras. 3 months after his arrival, he was caught by border patrol in a sting operation. He was later deported back to his home country. Many immigrants have gone through what Enrique has; it must be heart breaking to have your dreams taken right from you. Some argue that having undocumented immigrants in the United States are a burden to the economy. This is because they use food stamps and other welfare benefits available for American citizens. They use state welfare and state healthcare facilities meant for those who are citizens. Others would also argue that it’s hard to tell if they are here for work or for malicious activities such as gang affiliation. There are others who argue that they drain funds of the educational system. They argue that millions, if not billions are spent trying to teach immigrant children in schools. Many immigrants that come to the United States do not know English or know little. There are also complaintsShow MoreRelatedImmigrants From The United States893 Words   |  4 Pagestheir place of origin and arrive to the United States, in a melting pot of different cultures. Based on the module readings and the documentary, â€Å"Lost in Detention†, immigrant’s experiences many physical and mental damages to their health, which can make their new life in America, a negative, rather than a positive. 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Motivation in the Ministry of Business

Question: Discuss about the Motivation in the Ministry of Business. Answer: Introduction Motivation refers to the inner drive, which influences the behavior of a person concerning achievement of set goals. Numerous researchers have studied the role motivation plays in the success of the company. They have verified that corporations that have a high level of motivation tend to perform better than firmswhose workers have a low motivational level. The human resource management plays a key role in boosting the motivational levels in the organization, which results in improved performance and productivity. The low-performancedegree in the public sector is a growing concern since themajority of the staff members remain unmotivated (Buelens, 2007, p67). Motivation is necessary in the public sector organizations since it would act as a major role in enhancing the productivity and efficiency of the entire organization. Problem Statement The level of morale of public sector employees in Guyana is considerably low. Thus, themajority of the staff members are unable to meet the needs of the consumers to satisfacton. This contributes to the inability of the public firms to achieve the set goals and objectives. Motivation is, therefore,essential for the accomplishment of tasks and objectives. It plays a central role in the performance of organizations in the public sector. It offers a means of improving performance without any necessary monitoring or pushing of the involved individuals to meet the set objectives and goals. As a result, it is an efficient means of improving output without any wastage of resources or workforce. The goal of organizations is to deliver services that meet the demand of the clients. The understanding of the concept of motivation is central to the meeting of these set goals. As such, through the application of the methods and strategies of motivation, the employees can be oriented towards aligning their objectives with those of the organization. The motivation is particularly essential for organizations in the public sector where service delivery involves multitudes of interactions between customer care and the clients. The motivation of these employees in the public sector will boost the organizations efficiency and output while increasing customer satisfaction. The management should, therefore, embrace strategies of improving the motivational level of the employees in the public sector so that they can enhance their level of competition. Research Questions and Objectives What are factors lead to high performance in public sector, case in point, Ministry of Business, Guyana. 1. To explore the concept of motivation in the public sector. 2. To identify any faults or weaknesses and strengths in the current motivation methods used in the public sector. 3. To provide modifications for mitigating the weaknesses while enhancing the strengths of the current methods of motivation. 4. To investigate the applicability of the common motivational theories and the accompanying approaches in the public sector. 5. To assess the associated impact of theapplication of the different theories and methodologies as a motivational method. Key Debates on Motivation in the Public Sector According to Dur and Zoutenbier (2014, p1), the rate of employee laziness in the public sector is very high. Although most of the employees in the public sector are altruistic in nature, their level of laziness increases as they gain more experience at their jobs. The methods of motivation used in the public sector are therefore treated differently. Buelens (2007, p65) supports this view by pointing out that employees in the public sector are more focused on serving others. However, Burton (2012, p25) contrasts the views of the two writers by stating that regardless of the sector that employees work, they all need motivation which may vary depending on the personal preferences of the employees. The manager of organizations in the public sectors should, therefore, work to ensure that they identify the motivators of their employees so asto keep them motivated in order to realise productivity. The method of motivation, therefore, varies depending on the personal traits of the employees but not the type of the firm. ORiordan (2013, p11) supports Burtons ideologyby pointing out that people in the same field are often motivated by the same factors regardless of whether they serve in the public sector or not. She further points out that the difference between employees in the public sectors is thatthey are focused on the wellbeing of every member of the public while those in the other sector are focused on the well-being of the individuals they serve. Controversy exists as to whether employees in the public sector should be motivated through monetary or non-monetary methods. Non-financial motivational methods involve the recognition, job security, job description, self-esteem, and self-actualization. They fall under both the intrinsic and extrinsic motivational methods. Intrinsic motivation applies where employees pushing themselves to give their best at work so as to get satisfied with their jobs for their ability to complete assigned tasks as expected. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, involves employees being pushed by the leaders at the place of work. The financial motivational methods mainly lie under the extrinsic type since it involves salary increase and monetary incentives. According to Dur and Zoutenbier (2014, p16), intrinsic motivational methods are the most effective methods in the public sector. The writers support their argument by pointing out that the employees in the public sector are altruists. They, therefore, do not require to be given incentives such as monetary rewards to motivate them. Being given an opportunity to serve the public more is important to them than receiving incentives. They, however, contradict their point of view by stating that the employees in the public sector are lazy. They, therefore, have to be pushed around to complete assigned tasks. ORiordan (2013, p11) on the other hand holds a different outlook regarding the subject. She states that the persons that prefer working in the public sector do so because of the advantages its offers. These include factors such as job permanence, pensions and the belief that public sector jobs are easy to balance than when engaged in other jobs. Thus, the public sector employees are motivated through extrinsic methods. Other researchers such as Burton (2012, p25) argue that both intrinsic and extrinsic methods could be used in the public sector depending on the interests and personal traits of the individuals. Persons that are interested in incentives should be motivated through theuse of extrinsic motivation. Those that seek job satisfaction should, however,be motivated through intrinsic motivational strategies. Motivational Theories Different motivational theories have been developed over the years to guide managers on how to motivate employees in the public sector. The theories can be clustered into three categories namely: need theories, cognitive theories and public service motivation (Karic, 2014, p25). The categories differ on their focus in motivating employees. Need theories are motivational theories that focus on identifying the needs of the employees and seeking to satisfy them with the aim of motivating them. One of the need theories is Maslows Hierarchy Theory. In this theory, employees needs are grouped into stages or levels. The management in all sectors has to identify the level that their employees are in so that they can strategize to motivate them to work hard through meeting their needs (Karic, 2014, p26). Need theories further include McGregors Theory X and Y. These are two theories that hold contradicting information regarding employees needs. They are both based on assumptions. Theory X argues that everyone be lazy and prefers not to work. Thus, they only work to gain money. Managers in public service, therefore, should motivate employees by giving them incentives. Managers that believe employees are motivated by the success of their work should, however, use Theory Y. In this case, the managers should motivate their employees through acts such as giving them more responsibilities (Karic, 2014, p27). Cognitive theories, on the other hand, identify the behavioral processes that are used to determine the appropriate motivational method. One of the cognitive theories is Vroom VIE Theory. It divides thebehavioral process into three categories namely: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. His theory determines the appropriate motivation strategy by assessing the expectations of the employees, their needs and the difference of rewards for different performances (Karic, 2014, p29). Goal Setting Theory is also another cognitive theory. The goals of an organization should be clear, difficult but achievable (Karic, 2014, p30). Consequently, it helps motivate employees to work hard towards the goals. This is unlike situations where the employees are told to give their best. Such instructions cause employees to relax and thereby low-level output. The theory further recommends the managers to include employees in the goal-setting process. As such, it initiates employees to make theirown goals and thereby willingly participate in their fulfillment. The Public Service Motivation Theory, in contrast, focuses on public sector employees only. This theory claims that employees in the public sector are different from those in other sectors (Rynes, Colbert and Brown,2002, p149174) it also futher explains that efforts to manage the employee behavior around government departments or the public sector by focusing on the financial aspect may not have the positive desired outcome and could result in rather a negative impact. The motivational strategies for employees in the public sector is therefore different depending on the area that an individual works. The theory states that public sector employees are motivated through intrinsic methods as opposed to the extrinsic methods (Karic, 2014, p31). Hypothesis and Conceptual Framework The literature acts as a foundation for development of both the hypothesis and the conceptual framework. Through the research, one can investigate the hypothetical propositions; hence determine their relevance in a real world situation. Hypothesis: 1. The motivational level among the employees in the public sector is lower than 50% 2. The introduction of monetary motivators to the employees would raise the motivation level, and thus the performance and productivity level. 3. The introduction of non-financial motivators to the employees would raise the motivation level, and thus the performance and productivity level. 4. Non-monetary incentives tend to yield higher results than the financial rewards and benefits. Conceptual Framework Philosphy of Research The research process refers to the systematic, empirical, and controlled investigation of propositions about an assumed relationship between phenomena (Walter Andersen, 2013, p45). This research targets at evaluation of the relationship between the motivational levels of staff members in the public sector and the monetary and non-monetary motivation factors.The research methodology will focus on thecollection of quantitative data, which will aid in theevaluation of the set hypothesis.The verified concepts can then be applied by managers in the public sectors for improving performance and productivity through raising the level of employee motivation. During the research, the independent variable will be the level of motivation. Thus, after identification of the present level of motivation, there will be anassessment of the impact of the dependent variables on the motivation of employees. The dependent variables will be monetary motivators and non-monetary motivators. The monetary mot ivators under consideration will be incentives and salary rise while the non-monetary motivators will include supervision, recognition, self-actualization, responsibilities, job design, and job security. Data Analysis The population under study is the organizations that fall under the ministry of business public sector. Due to thelimitation of time and funds, the research will only involve a representative sample. To eliminate biases, both stratified and random sampling will be employed in the selection of five organizations. Stratified sampling will ensure that the selected organizationsare not located within the same region. Thus, one organization will be randomly chosen within the ministry of business. However, since the Ministry of Business is large, two organizations will be randomly selected from each district. For each selected organization, the target respondents will be 15. The management will be instructed randomly to choose one high-level manager, two middle-level managers, three supervisors, and nine workers to participate in the data collection process. Data will be collected through administration of questionnaires to the selected sample. The questions will be structured and close-ended. There will be theelimination of open-ended questions to eliminate ambiguity due to instances of answering out of context. The questions will entail rating the variables with 1, 3 or 5, where one will refer to the lowest source of amotivator, 3 will refer to the moderate motivator, while 5 will refer to the primary sources of motivation. The respondents will also have to rate the level of employee motivation between 1 to 5, where 1 is the lowest level while five will be the highest. Evidently, there will be minimal writing since the resource person will be expected to mark the given choices. The questions will target at thecollection of data that focuses on the identified variables. A collection of personal data, such as the name of therespondent, age, salary, and gender orientation will be irrelevant for this study. From the listed organizations in the ministry of business public sector, five organizations will be selected at random. An email and a phone call will be placed to the manager of the organization to ask for the interest and time to participate in the research. After receiving the approval and confirmation, the questionnaires and instructions on how to administer them will be sent to the organization through the Email. The time each organization will be given to send the data will be one week since itwill aid in the determination of the number of respondents, and analysis based on the response rate. For organizations that turn down the request, they will be replaced with others, which will be willing. After the data is collected, it will be tabulated for easier analysis. The instrument to be used will be SPSS since it helps in grouping data with specified characteristics. For every organization, there will be acalculationof the ratings of the various motivators. For example, if 9 out of 15 stated rated pay rise as 5, then the analysis would reflect that 60% of the members of the organization claim that it is a primary source of motivation. By the use of Pearson correlation, there will be anevaluation of the various dependent variables on the motivation level. Consequently, there will either be validation or nullification of the set hypothesis. Validity, Reliability, Generalization, and Practical Issues To ensure validity, the research work will use a research method and data analysis strategies that have been tested and approved. Numerous credited research works have incorporated these methods. Moreover, the administered questions will be short and precise.As such, it will eliminate instances of persons developing different perspectives from those intended.To increase the reliability level, there will be communication of the objectives of the study to the participants. This will promote the level of issuing accurate and precise data. Thus, there will be reduced theerror of operation. Also, elimination of bias will aid in increasing the level of reliability. Moreover, reducing the level of writing in the questionnaires through issuing close-ended questions will reduce the probability of collecting erroneous data due to incomprehensible handwriting. From data gathered, the results issued will generalize the topic of the motivation level and factors that would help increase the employee motivation in the ministry of business public sector. The generalization will be precise since the sample selected will be free from bias. This is because the sampling process, which entails both stratification and random selection, eliminate biases that may arise from location or size of the firm (Walter Andersen, 2013, p78). The stratified selection also ensures that the organization is not only selected from all regions, but also takes into deliberation the size of the four countries in the ministry of business. Although either of the districts, may not be chosen for the research, the results of the study will be applicable to the whole of ministry of business since the persons tend to exhibit similar traits in the workplace.Managers of various organizations within the public sector in various parts of the world can apply the results in their respective organizations to raise the level of motivation, hence increased performance and productivity. Bibliography Buelens, Marc. (2007). An Analysis of Differences in Work Motivation between Public and Private SectorOrganisations, Public Administration Review, Vol. 67, No. 1, pp.65-74. Burton, Kelli. (2014). How to Get your Employees Moving. SPEA Honors Thesis, Indiana University, pfp1-33. Dur, Robert, and Zoutenbier, Robin. (2014). Intrinsic Motivations of Public Sector Employees: Evidence for Germany.Discussion Paper, No. 8239, pp1-36. Gerhart, B., Rynes, S. L. (2003). Compensation: Theory, evidence, and strategic implications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Herzberg, F. (2003, January). One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, pp. 311. Karic, Merima. (2014). Motivation of Public Sector Employees: The Case of the Novi Grad Sarajevo Municipality. Masters Thesis, University of Ljubljana, pp1-69. Le Grand J. (2010). Knights and Knaves Return: Public Service Motivation and the Delivery of Public Service. International Public Management Journal, 13(1), 56-71 Moynihan D. (2010). A Workforce of Cynics? The Effects of Contemporary Reforms on Public Service Motivation. International Public Management Journal, 13 (1), 24-34 Mulgan, G. (2014) Innovation in the public sector: how can public organisations better create, improve and adapt? London: Nesta ORiordan, Joanna. (2013). Public Service Motivation. State of the Public Service Series, pp1-35. Perry J. and Hondeghem A. (2008). Motivation in Public Management: the Call of Public Service. Oxford: Oxford University Press Paarlberg L., Perry J. and Hondeghem A. (2008). From Theory to Practice: Strategies for Applying Public Service Motivation. In Perry J. and Hondeghem A. Motivation in Public Management: the Call of Public Service. Oxford: Oxford University Press Reem, Yair. (2011). Motivating Public Sector Employees. Hertie School of Governance Working Paper, no. 60, pp1-59 Rosenblatt, M. (2011) The use of innovation awards in the public sector: Individual and organizational perspectives. Innovation: Management, Policy and Practice. Vol. 13 (2): 20719. Srensen, E. and Torfng, J. (2012) Introduction: Collaborative innovation in the public sector. The Innovation Journal: The Public Sector Innovation Journal. Vol. 17 (1): 114. Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A., Brown, K. G. (2002). HR professionals beliefs about effective human resource practices: Correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41, 149174 Vandenabeele W. (2009). The Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction and Organisation Commitment on Self- reported Performance: More Robust Evidence of the PSM-Performance Relationship. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 75 (1), 11-34 Vandenabeele W. (2008). Development of a Public Service Motivation Measurement Scale: Corroborating and Extending Perrys Measurement Instrument. International Public Management Journal, 11 (1), 143-167 Vandenabeele W. and Van de Walle S. (2008). International Differences in Public Service Motivation: Comparing Regions Across the World. In Perry J. and Hondeghem A. Motivation in Public Management: the Call of Public Service. Oxford: Oxford University Press Walter, M., and Andersen, C. (2013). Indigenous Statistics: A Quantitative Research Methodology. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.

Pill Bug Lab Essay Example

Pill Bug Lab Paper ABSTRACT Pill bugs live in an outside environment where they are able to get the necessary amount of energy from organic matter. This environment is where water and organic matter is plentiful. In there natural habitat, pill bugs are found in dark, damp places. Living in moist places is important for pill bugs so they can take in enough water, and if water is not available, they group together to prevent water loss. Pill bugs most often live in dark places because they have a negative photo taxis. Darker places also tend to be cooler and damper. Each experiment connected to how the pill bugs would behave in a certain environment. We will write a custom essay sample on Pill Bug Lab specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Pill Bug Lab specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Pill Bug Lab specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We were able to test these experiments in a laboratory way to see if the natural environments were also true. If pill bugs are given a light and dark environment, then they will prefer the dark environment. If pill bugs were put in a warm or cold environment, they will prefer the cooler temperature. If pill bugs were in a dry or moist are, they would flock to the moist are. In the last experiment we tested to see if they preferred shelter or unsheltered environments, for which they choose unsheltered. After doing all four experiments, it was clear that pill bugs have a concise behavioral pattern in each environment. This lab’s purpose is to help differentiate kinesis and taxis movements. These movements are seen throughout all animals and they help us learn how animals react to a stimulus. In order to see how animals react to certain environments, we set up four tests and used pillbugs as our specimen. Through these four experiments, we were able to conclude that the pillbugs liked dark, damp, sheltered and hot spaces as oppose to light, dry, open and cold areas. This was concluded because, as shown in Tables/Figures 1, 2, 3, 4; the bugs seemed to congregate in the dark, damp, sheltered and hot chambers mostly. However, for a few minutes in each of the experiment, the bugs did not respond in the way we had hypothesized. This could be due to the fact that these animals have been used for prior experiments for weeks and weeks. These animals are obviously aggravated from these experiences; therefore they might not have wanted to go through it all again and did not want to cooperate with us as a whole. My hypothesis is that these animals will prefer the cold, sheltered, dark and damp habitats as opposed to hot, open, light and dry environments. INTRODUCTION There are many different ways to classify animal behavior and behavioral types. Behavior in terms of an animal’s response is a result of sensory input and falls within the categories of innate (inherited) and learned behaviors. When an animal is in a favorable environment it is called orientation behavior (Laboratory Manual 137). When an animal moves either toward or away from heat, light, or moisture, it’s called taxis. When an animal’s movement is completely random, it is called kinesis. The way an organism moves can be either taxis or kinesis. Another kind of behavior is how organisms behave when mating. Part of the mating ritual involves agnostic behavior where animals respond to each other with aggressive or submissive behaviors. Behavior with other organisms includes appearances, movements, and interactions with each other. Terrestrial isopods are land dwelling crustaceans, commonly known as sowbugs or pill bugs (or roly-pollies). While they look similar, sow bugs are different from pill bugs. An Animal’s behavior is often erratic and hard to study. However, in a controlled environment, it is easily done. We used Pillbugs in this lab, and placed them in various conditions. We tested to see if they would prefer a damp over dry environment, a hot over cold, a dark versus light and an open environment over a sheltered one. A natural defense mechanism for the Pillbugs is to curl themselves up into a tight ball and basically, play dead. When set in various conditions they can perform orientation behaviors. These behaviors include taxis and kinesis. Taxis occur when the animal moves towards or away from a certain stimulus. Kinesis occurs when the animal moves in a random motion in response to the stimulus. Throughout this lab, we put the pillbugs through four different tests. These experiments are to test to see if these animals will prefer a certain habitat rather than another and how they show this is through either kinesis movement or taxis movement. MATERIALS AND METHODS In all labs, a lab book and a pen or pencil are essential to record the number of pillbugs. The times come up fast so you have to make sure you are watching the clock or stop watch. Obviously, do not poke the pillbugs or try and force them into a certain chamber aggressively, this will aggravate them and cause unreliable results. When you are trying to get your pillbugs, use a paintbrush to sweep them onto your brush and then carefully lace them into the choice chamber dish that is provided for you. Make sure to get 10 pillbugs so you can have five in each chamber. If they look dead, they are most likely just curled up. During the various tests, make sure to take notes on the appearance, the types of movements (kinesis or taxis) and the interactions between the animals. The first experiment is to find out if the pillbugs prefer dark or light environments. The choice chambers have a little passageway between the chambers. Make sure to gently place five pillbugs on each side and then block off that doorway with a cardboard barrier of some sorts. Pick one of the chambers and then cover that chamber with something that will make the chamber be a dark environment. Leave the other chamber completely untouched, this will be the control group for the experiment. Obtain a stop watch and remove the barrier. Then record the amount of pillbugs on the light and dark chambers after every 30 seconds. We recorded our results every 30 seconds for 10 minutes. After the 10 minutes are over, take the cover off the dark chamber and make sure you have all 10 pillbugs still and then place the clear chamber covers to ensure that the bugs won’t escape whilst you get the second experiment ready. Remember to document in your lab book which is the independent and dependent variable for each of your experiments, this will make it easier to graph them later on. The next test is to see if the animals find a damp environment more appealing than a dry one. This is done by damping a white circular disk of paper with water and placing it in one of the chambers. When doing this, make sure that all 10 pillbugs are on one side so you will not be placing the damp paper on top of a pillbug. Just like the previous experiment, place five pillbugs on each side of the chamber and block the doorway. When the timer is ready, open up the entry way and time for 10 minutes, recording the number of pillbugs on each side every 30 seconds. When the 10 minutes has elapsed, carefully rally the pillbugs to the dry chamber and remove the damp paper and cover the chambers with the clear cover again. For the third experiment we tested if the pillbugs would prefer a sheltered environment as oppose to an open one. This is done by placing a cardboard shelter in one of the chambers. The shelter should fit in the chamber and should not cover the whole chamber (if it did, then the experiment would be like the first test conducted). This time, when recording the number of bugs, you will have to count the number of bugs out in the open (even if they are in the chamber with the shelter, if they are not under the shelter than they are in the open). Again, you will keep time for 10 minutes, recording your data every 30 seconds. After the 10 minutes is up, remove the shelter and make sure that all 10 pillbugs are still in the chambers. The final experiment is testing the temperature preference of the pillbugs. First, obtain two Petri dishes; fill up one of the Petri dishes with ice from the freezer and the other with hot water from the hot water bath. Then place the chambers on top of the Petri dishes, making sure that the hot water was underneath one chamber and the ice was underneath the other. Remove the barrier between the chambers and record your results every 30 seconds for 10 minutes. After the ten minutes are over, throw out the hot water and ice and place your Petri dishes back. Return the 10 pillbugs to their makeshift habitats carefully and then clean up your area and materials. RESULTS For the first experiment, we tested to see if the Pillbugs preferred darker condition to lighter ones. The animals would swarm to each other initially, but after a few seconds they began to spread out. As seen in Table 1 and Figure 1, the animals preferred the dark side. When a Pillbug would come out from the dark chamber, it quickly went back, usually taking another Pillbug with it. There were a few who hung out in the doorway between the two chambers; we counted that as being on the dark side because it was slightly covered. The second experiment was to test the Pillbug’s response to damp versus dry conditions. After setting up the test we learned that most of the Pillbugs enjoyed being on the damper chamber as oppose to the dry chamber. As you can see by the observations on Table 2 and Figure 2, one particular Pillbug enjoyed the damp area so much that it sprinted to that side and ran in circles. The next experiment we did was to test the pillbug’s response to a shelter. The shelter is different than the dark and light test because only a part of the chamber is covered, not the whole thing. As seen by Table 3 and Figure 3, the Pillbugs liked the shelter more so than being out in the open. For the majority of the time, the number of Pillbugs was even on each side but there were more bugs underneath the shelter than out in the open. DISCUSSION When the group was gathering our Pillbugs from their makeshift habitat, I noticed that the majority of them were attached to the underneath of a piece of paper towel. I speculated that they preferred darker scenarios and my results seemed to support this speculation. From this information I also suspected that the animals would prefer the shelter rather than an open area. Especially since they had a defense mechanism of curling into a ball, I figured that the Pillbugs did not like to be open and vulnerable to predators. Also, they are usually found in dirt environments, which means that they would prefer moist areas as oppose to dry ones. Some of the experiments were inconsistent with the movement of the Pillbugs. In the beginning of each experiment, the pillbugs seemed to show taxis movement, as in they were moving away from the stimulus that displeased them and moved towards the one that they preferred. However, as the test went on, especially in the fourth test (as seen in Table 4 and Figure 4), the pillbugs performed movements closer to the kinesis definition. This was totally unexpected, especially since the bugs were supporting out hypothesis in the beginning. This change in attitude could be because of numerous things. The experiment was not conducted properly, the hot water was not hot enough, the cover did not cover the whole chamber, or these pillbugs have been poked and prodded for a long time now. Therefore, they might have been exhausted and fed up and did not want to cooperate with us. LITERATURE CITED Wagner, David, Theodore Taigen, Thomas Terry, and Karen Lombard. Biology 102: Foundations of Biology. Fall 2006 Stamford Edition. 129-137. Unknown: University of Connecticut, 2007.